Archive Definition & History

What is an Archive?

An archive is a repository where all types of visual, written, and data records—produced as a result of the activities of real and legal entities—are preserved due to their administrative, legal, testimonial, and institutional value, or for future reference. Archives are generally divided into two categories: classical archives and modern archives. Classical archives deal with historical documents written in older scripts, such as the Ottoman Archives. Modern archives refer to facilities that maintain every kind of document and information produced by contemporary institutions like corporations, hospitals, and television networks.

Introduction

The root of the word "archive" comes from the Latin "archivum," which itself evolved from the Ancient Greek word "arkheion." By definition, an archive is a place where documents—whose active use by official departments, various institutions, or individuals has ended, yet must be preserved—are stored systematically according to specific rules. Archives take on different names such as state archives, city archives, private archives, or family archives depending on the entity they serve.

The core of archival material is formed by correspondence and files generated during the daily operations of state departments and large institutions. However, not all these papers become archival material. Collected materials are selected by specialists and systematically classified before storage. This classification is carefully structured to facilitate easy access in the future. Because archival materials consist of definitive documents, they serve as living and authentic evidence of past activities.

Archival documents often include clay tablets, bronze tablets, papyri, parchments, handwritten, typewritten, or printed paper documents. Furthermore, items of significant importance such as microfilms, photographs, audio tapes, and video cassettes can also be classified as archival documents.

Generally, for an item to be considered archival material, a rule requires that at least 30 years must have passed since its creation. In Turkey, however, the term "archive" is used somewhat broader than its classic definition, encompassing all forms of documentation.

Historical Development of Archiving

The history of archiving dates back to very ancient civilizations. In Ancient Egypt and Rome, many state, temple, and family archives existed. In the Mesopotamian city of Nippur, a state archive containing clay tablet documents dating from 2000 BC was discovered. Excavations at Hattusa (Boğazköy) revealed a vast state archive belonging to the Hittites (1800–1200 BC), preserving records of battles, treaties, laws, and royal chronicles. A significant portion of this archive is now housed in the archaeology museums of Istanbul and Ankara.

Among European nations, France established the first French National Archive in 1790. In England, it was customary for statesmen to take their official documents with them when leaving office. To prevent the scattering of official records, the Public Record Office was founded in 1838. The German state archive was established later in 1867.

In Turkish-Islamic states, written paper was historically treated with profound respect. State documents were meticulously preserved, particularly out of fear of violating individuals' rights. Following this tradition, the Ottomans—one of the greatest Turkish-Islamic states—preserved state documents in exceptional locations. Ruling over regions in the Middle East and the Balkans for centuries, the Ottoman Empire safeguarded official documents with immense care in pouches, bags, and chests according to specific methodologies, regardless of their apparent importance. The Financial Ledgers Treasury and the Defterhane (Registry) Treasury were among the state's most critical vaults. The regular issuance of directives regarding the proper preservation of documents in Ottoman state departments highlights this significance. In an order sent to the Reis-ül-küttab by Sultan Abdul Hamid I in 1785, strict attention to the preservation of documents and ledgers was demanded. The Ottoman archives represent one of the most robust and extensive archives not just for Turkey, but for the world. Managing people of various languages, religions, and races across three continents for centuries, the Ottomans meticulously recorded and preserved detailed information about these populations.

Before the conquest of Istanbul, archives were formed in Bursa and Edirne. Following the conquest, the first archive in Istanbul was established near Yedikule. With the construction of Topkapı Palace, an archive was built adjacent to the Imperial Council (Divan-ı Hümayun). By the 16th century, the archival system reached an advanced level. Not a single draft was discarded; documents were kept in bags, chests, covers, and even silk atlas pouches. These materials were stored in dry vault cellars.

In the Ottoman system, documents of the Imperial Council were organized as loose papers or bound ledgers. Ledgers were bound, sorted chronologically, and stored in special rooms called "Mahzen-i Evrak" (Document Vault). Loose leaves were rolled up and placed in pouches.

Important documents and imperial edicts (fermans) were placed in silk pouches and cases. In every department, the daily documents were gathered in a bundle, the monthly in a bag, and the yearly in a chest. Labels detailing the contents were attached to the chests. The Defterhane treasury was located next to the Kubbealtı chamber during the times when the Imperial Council met regularly. As these meetings lost their prominence, the treasury was moved above the Bab-ı Hümayun (Imperial Gate). It was later transferred to a vault called Saray-ı Atik in Sultanahmet and to the Tomruk department near the Sublime Porte (Babıali). Some of the palace documents were gathered in the Outer Treasury building next to Kubbealtı. Financial documents were stored in the old Tent Pitchers' Barracks in Sultanahmet. All laws, regulations, and edicts were recorded in ledgers, authenticated, and preserved. There were designated officials ready to retrieve these ledgers immediately when needed.

The state archive was one of the three treasuries sealed with the Sultan's seal, kept by the Grand Vizier. After every government meeting, the discussions were written down and sealed. A ledger could only be removed from the archive with a written order from the Grand Vizier, and the duration of its absence was carefully recorded.

Ottoman state documents were exceptionally well-maintained, written on durable paper with indelible ink. A registry official (Defter Emini) could locate a requested ledger or document among millions within minutes, thanks to the phenomenal classification system.

The first serious attempt at modern national archiving in the Ottoman State occurred in 1845, when Finance Minister Safveti Pasha tried to organize the historical documents in the Enderun. However, modern archiving truly began with the establishment of the Hazine-i Evrak Nezareti (Ministry of the Document Treasury) in 1846, forming the nucleus of today's Prime Ministerial Archive. A dry, elevated location within the Sublime Porte was selected, and a flawless building was constructed using specially manufactured bricks. Esseyyid Hasan Muhsin Efendi, a prominent scribe, was appointed as the minister. He can be considered the architect of modern archiving in Turkey. Hasan Muhsin Efendi and his team conducted invaluable work. He drafted archival guidelines that determined the classification of documents and the operational procedures of the archive, publishing them in 1849 as the "Hazine-i Evrak Nizamnamesi" (Document Treasury Regulation). This archive housed treaties, imperial decrees, internal and external affairs documents, Imperial Council ledgers, parliamentary reports, and laws.

In 1922, an Archive Inspectorship was established in Istanbul. Through various reorganizations, it eventually evolved into the General Directorate of the Prime Ministerial State Archives in 1954.

Today, hundreds of millions of Turkish and Ottoman archive materials remain in countries that separated from the empire. For example, 2,644 Turkish documents are kept in a Franciscan Monastery in Jerusalem, and 210,000 documents are known to be in Romanian archives. Unfortunately, millions of documents were lost, destroyed, or notoriously sold to Bulgaria by the wagonload in 1931 as waste paper. Consequently, around 500,000 Turkish registers and documents remain in Bulgaria today.

Various historical commissions attempted to classify the massive volume of documents over the decades, utilizing the expertise of figures like Ali Emiri, Mahmud Kemal İnal, and Hungarian archivist Lajos Fekete. Although these early efforts fell short due to the sheer volume of material, modern initiatives have dramatically accelerated the classification processes, utilizing young, specialized teams.

Major Archives in Turkey

Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives

Today, the richest archive in Turkey is the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives in Istanbul. This archive contains the documents of the Ottoman Empire's central organization, including the Imperial Council and affiliated departments. It also houses the Yıldız Palace Archive of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Holding over 100 million historical documents, it serves as the primary archive not only for Turkey but for more than 20 independent states formed after the empire's dissolution.

Topkapı Palace Museum Archive

Before the Tanzimat reforms, it was customary to store documents related to the sultans and confiscated records of state officials at the palace. This archive contains over 10,726 ledgers and 12,724 documents, the oldest dating back to the reign of Orhan Gazi.

General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre Archive

Located in Ankara, this archive preserves the final land survey registers of the 16th century, along with land deed records from 1848 onwards.

Şer'iyye Registers Archive

This archive preserves the court registers and decrees of Islamic courts. Transferred to the Ministry of National Education in 1941, these registers are currently housed in the National Library in Ankara, with a portion also kept at the Istanbul Mufti's Office.

Foundations (Vakıf) Archive

Operating under the General Directorate of Foundations, this archive preserves documents and records pertaining to historical endowments and charitable foundations.

TBMM (Grand National Assembly of Turkey) Archive

This archive stores the laws, minutes, and proceedings enacted since 1920, safeguarding the legislative history of the modern Republic.